Part B · The Specimens — A Jewish Ornithology Guide

Row 1 נֶשֶׁר nesher griffon vulture (mod.) / eagle (trad.) Talmudic-anchored

Verse

אֶת־הַנֶּשֶׁר וְאֶת־הַפֶּרֶס וְאֵת הָעׇזְנִיָּה׃

Leviticus 11:13 · Deuteronomy 14:12

Talmud · Chullin 61b (24 birds, 4 signs)

גְּמִירִי עֶשְׂרִים וְאַרְבָּעָה עוֹפוֹת טְמֵאִים הָווּ וְאַרְבָּעָה סִימָנִין. תְּלָתָא הָדְרִי בְּכֻלְּהוּ עֶשְׂרִים מֵהֶם שְׁלֹשָׁה שְׁלֹשָׁה, וּתְרֵי בְּעוֹרֵב, חַד בְּפֶרֶס וְחַד בְּעׇזְנִיָּה.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.61b

This passage establishes the structural count (24 birds, 4 signs) and groups נשר · פרס · עזניה. It is rendered once here and cross-referenced from the peres and ozniyah rows.

Modern Candidate

Gyps fulvus (Eurasian griffon vulture). Common modern candidate; no medieval לעז or Rambam PM anchor in this dataset.

Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in flight, showing broad wings and bare head

Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 2 פֶּרֶס peres bearded vulture / lammergeier Structural anchor only

Verse

אֶת־הַנֶּשֶׁר וְאֶת־הַפֶּרֶס וְאֵת הָעׇזְנִיָּה׃

Leviticus 11:13 · Deuteronomy 14:12

Verify: Lev 11:13 · Deut 14:12

Chullin 61b names פרס as one of the two birds having exactly one of the four signs. See the verbatim 61b quote on the nesher row above.

Modern Candidate

Gypaetus barbatus (bearded vulture / lammergeier). Common modern candidate; no Rashi לעז and no Rambam PM anchor in this dataset.

Bearded vulture / lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), front view showing distinctive facial feathers

Bearded Vulture / Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 3 עׇזְנִיָּה ozniyah sea eagle (trad.) / black vulture (mod.) Structural anchor only

Verse

אֶת־הַנֶּשֶׁר וְאֶת־הַפֶּרֶס וְאֵת הָעׇזְנִיָּה׃

Leviticus 11:13 · Deuteronomy 14:12

Verify: Lev 11:13 · Deut 14:12

Chullin 61b names עזניה as the other bird with exactly one of the four signs. See the verbatim 61b quote on the nesher row above.

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. Aegypius monachus (cinereous vulture) is the common modern candidate but carries no medieval לעז or Rambam PM anchor in this dataset.

Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) in flight — traditional candidate for ozniyah, not a secure identification

Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 4 דָּאָה / רָאָה da'ah / ra'ah one species per Chullin 63b Talmudic-anchored

Verses

וְאֶת־הַדָּאָה וְאֶת־הָאַיָּה לְמִינָהּ׃ (ויקרא)

וְהָרָאָה וְאֶת־הָאַיָּה וְהַדַּיָּה לְמִינָהּ׃ (דברים)

Leviticus 11:14 · Deuteronomy 14:13

Verify: Lev 11:14 · Deut 14:13

Talmud · Chullin 63b (one-species derivation)

מִכְדִּי מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה לְאוֹסוֹפֵי הוּא דְּאָתָא, מַאי שְׁנָא הָכָא דִּכְתִיב דָּאָה וּמַאי שְׁנָא הָכָא דִּכְתִיב רָאָה וְלָא כְתִיב דָּאָה? אֶלָּא שְׁמַע מִינַּהּ — מִין רָאָה וְדָאָה אַחַת הִיא.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63b

Modern Candidate

Unresolved raptor complex. No Rashi לעז for this row.

Black kite (Milvus migrans) in flight — traditional candidate for the da'ah/ra'ah complex, not a secure identification

Black Kite (Milvus migrans). Traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 5 אַיָּה / דַּיָּה ayah / dayah one species per Chullin 63b Talmudic-anchored

Verses

Leviticus 11:14 (איה) · Deuteronomy 14:13 (איה · דיה)

Verify: Lev 11:14 · Deut 14:13

Talmud · Chullin 63b (Abaye on parallel identification)

אָמַר אַבַּיֵי: כְּשֵׁם שֶׁרָאָה וְדָאָה אַחַת הִיא, כָּךְ אַיָּה וְדַיָּה אַחַת הִיא.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63b

Talmud · Chullin 63b (Rabbi on the multiple names)

כִּדְתַנְיָא: רַבִּי אוֹמֵר: אֶקְרָא אֲנִי אַיָּה, דַּיָּה לָמָּה נֶאֶמְרָה? כְּדֵי שֶׁלֹּא תִּתֵּן פִּתְחוֹן פֶּה לְבַעַל דִּין לַחֲלֹק — שֶׁלֹּא תְּהֵא אַתָּה קוֹרֵא אַיָּה וְהוּא קוֹרֵא דַּיָּה.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63b

Modern Candidate

Unresolved raptor complex. No Rashi לעז.

Peregrine falcon in flight — traditional raptor candidate, not a secure identification for the ayah/dayah complex

Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). Traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 6 עֹרֵב orev raven (base term) Talmudic-anchored

Verse

אֵת כׇּל־עֹרֵב לְמִינוֹ׃

Leviticus 11:15 · Deuteronomy 14:14

Verify: Lev 11:15 · Deut 14:14

Talmud · Chullin 63a ("black as a raven")

אָמַר מָר: עוֹרֵב זֶה עוֹרֵב. אַטּוּ קַמַּן קָאֵי? אֶלָּא אֵימָא עוֹרֵב זֶה עוֹרֵב אוּכְמָא. וְכֵן הוּא אוֹמֵר: קְוֻצּוֹתָיו תַּלְתַּלִּים שְׁחֹרוֹת כָּעוֹרֵב (שיר השירים ה, יא).

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

The sub-kinds expansion (למינו) is on the orev family row below.

Modern Candidate

Corvus spp. (raven and related corvids). The Torah itself presents a family group with למינו, so family-level identification is secure; species-level is not.

Common raven (Corvus corax) showing black plumage referenced in Song of Songs 5:11

Common Raven (Corvus corax). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 7 בַּת הַיַּעֲנָה bat ha-ya'anah ostrich (trad.) No lexical anchor

Verse

וְאֵת בַּת הַיַּעֲנָה וְאֶת־הַתַּחְמָס וְאֶת־הַשָּׁחַף וְאֶת־הַנֵּץ לְמִינֵהוּ׃

Leviticus 11:16 · Deuteronomy 14:15

Verify: Lev 11:16 · Deut 14:15

Modern Candidate

Struthio camelus (common ostrich). Common modern candidate. No Rashi לעז, no verified verbatim Talmudic etymology, and no Rambam PM anchor in this dataset.

Common ostrich (Struthio camelus) — flightless ratite with a peelable gizzard despite being explicitly forbidden

Common Ostrich (Struthio camelus). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 8 תַּחְמָס tachmas unresolved No lexical anchor

Verse

וְאֶת־הַתַּחְמָס וְאֶת־הַשָּׁחַף

Leviticus 11:16 · Deuteronomy 14:15

Verify: Lev 11:16 · Deut 14:15

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. No secure medieval lexical anchor in this dataset. The word appears nowhere else in Tanakh.

European nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) — one traditional candidate for tachmas, not a secure identification

European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus). One traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 9 שָׁחָף shachaf unresolved No lexical anchor

Verse

וְאֶת־הַשָּׁחַף וְאֶת־הַנֵּץ לְמִינֵהוּ׃

Leviticus 11:16 · Deuteronomy 14:15

Verify: Lev 11:16 · Deut 14:15

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. No secure medieval lexical anchor in this dataset.

Yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis) — one traditional candidate for shachaf, not a secure identification

Yellow-legged Gull (Larus michahellis). One traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 10 נֵץ netz hawk / sparrowhawk Anchored (Rashi + Talmud)

Verse

וְאֶת־הַנֵּץ לְמִינֵהוּ׃

Leviticus 11:16 · Deuteronomy 14:15

Verify: Lev 11:16 · Deut 14:15

Rashi on Leviticus 11:16

לעז: אשפר״ויר esprevier — sparrowhawk / small hawk

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:16

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Abaye on netz sub-kind)

תָּנוּ רַבָּנַן: הַנֵּץ — זֶה הַנֵּץ. לְמִינֵהוּ — לְהָבִיא אֶת בַּר חִירְיָא. מַאי בַּר חִירְיָא? אָמַר אַבַּיֵי: שׁוּרִינְקָא.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Accipiter sp.; likely Accipiter nisus (Eurasian sparrowhawk). Rashi's esprevier and the Talmudic sub-kind both point to the accipiter-class hawk zone; species-level identification is less secure.

Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) — matches Rashi's Old French esprevier

Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 11 כּוֹס kos owl (paired with yanshuf in Rashi) Rashi-anchored (with caveat)

Verse

וְאֶת־הַכּוֹס וְאֶת־הַשָּׁלָךְ וְאֶת־הַיַּנְשׁוּף׃

Leviticus 11:17 · Deuteronomy 14:16

Verify: Lev 11:17 · Deut 14:16

Rashi on Leviticus 11:17 (owl-pair)

לעז: צואי״טש · יי״בו chouette · hibou — owl (pair)

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:17

Rashi gives two Old French owl-words (chouette, hibou) covering כוס and ינשוף together as an owl-pair. The internal one-to-one assignment — which French word belongs to which Hebrew word — is not made explicit in Rashi. This row should not be read as assigning chouette specifically to כוס.

Modern Candidate

Owl group (Strigidae/Tyto indeterminate). Rashi's לעז anchors the owl zone; internal species allocation between kos and yanshuf is not Rashi's own.

Little owl (Athene noctua) — one traditional candidate within the owl group named by Rashi's owl-pair gloss

Little Owl (Athene noctua). One traditional candidate within the owl-pair, not a secure species identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 12 שָׁלָךְ shalach fish-catching bird (unresolved species) Talmudic-anchored

Verse

וְאֶת־הַשָּׁלָךְ וְאֶת־הַיַּנְשׁוּף׃

Leviticus 11:17 · Deuteronomy 14:17

Verify: Lev 11:17 · Deut 14:17

Rashi on Leviticus 11:17 (behavioral, no לעז)

זֶה הַשּׁוֹלֶה דָּגִים מִן הַיָּם.

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:17

Rashi gives a behavioral definition — "this is the one who draws fish from the sea" — not an Old French gloss. Behavior anchors ecology, not taxonomy.

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Yehuda, matching Rashi's phrasing)

אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה: שָׁלָךְ — זֶה הַשּׁוֹלֶה דָּגִים מִן הַיָּם.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Fish-snatching water bird, species unresolved. The medieval witnesses narrow ecology, not species.

Great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) — one traditional candidate for a fish-drawing bird, not a secure identification

Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). One traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 13 יַנְשׁוּף yanshuf owl (paired with kos in Rashi) Rashi-anchored (with caveat)

Verse

וְאֶת־הַיַּנְשׁוּף וְאֶת־הַתִּנְשֶׁמֶת

Leviticus 11:17–18 · Deuteronomy 14:16

Verify: Lev 11:17 · Deut 14:16

Rashi on Leviticus 11:17 (owl-pair, shared with kos)

לעז: צואי״טש · יי״בו chouette · hibou — owl (pair)

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:17

Same owl-pair as on the kos row. Rashi's two Old French owl-words are not individually allocated — which French word belongs to יַנְשׁוּף as distinct from כּוֹס is not stated by Rashi himself.

Modern Candidate

Owl group, unresolved at species level.

Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) — one traditional candidate within the owl group, not a secure identification

Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo). One traditional candidate within the owl-pair, not a secure species identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 14 תִּנְשֶׁמֶת tinshemet Rashi's לעז: bat (unresolved zoological problem) Rashi-anchored (with caveat)

Verse

וְאֶת־הַתִּנְשֶׁמֶת וְהַקָּאָת וְהָרָחָם׃

Leviticus 11:18 · Deuteronomy 14:16

Verify: Lev 11:18 · Deut 14:16

Rashi on Leviticus 11:18

לעז: קלב״א שוריץ calve soriz (chauve-souris) — bat

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:18

Rashi's לעז is a strong lexical datum but creates an unresolved zoological problem: it points to "bat," yet the Torah separately lists עטלף as its own bird on the very next verse (Leviticus 11:19 — see atalef below). The לעז is therefore a lexical anchor, not a solved identification.

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. Rashi's reading and the Torah's separate listing of עטלף are in tension.

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Row 15 קָאָת ka'at unresolved (Gemara: קוק, unidentified) Talmudic-anchored

Verse

וְהַקָּאָת וְהָרָחָם

Leviticus 11:18 · Deuteronomy 14:17

Verify: Lev 11:18 · Deut 14:17

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Yehuda)

אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה: קָאָת — זוֹ הַקּוּק.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. The Gemara identifies קאת with an Aramaic term קוק which is itself not further identified in this passage.

Great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) — one traditional candidate for ka'at, not a secure identification

Great White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus). One traditional candidate, not a secure identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 16 רָחָם racham Gemara: שרקרק (unidentified) Talmudic-anchored

Verse

וְהָרָחָם וְהַחֲסִידָה

Leviticus 11:18 · Deuteronomy 14:17

Verify: Lev 11:18 · Deut 14:17

Talmud · Chullin 63a (R. Yochanan on mercy etymology)

רָחָם — זוֹ שְׁרַקְרַק. אָמַר רַבִּי יוֹחָנָן: לָמָּה נִקְרָא שְׁמוֹ רָחָם? כֵּיוָן שֶׁבָּא רָחָם בָּאוּ רַחֲמִים לָעוֹלָם.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Bibi bar Abaye on the messianic sign)

אָמַר רַב בִּיבִי בַּר אַבַּיֵי: וְהוּא דְיָתֵיב אַמִּידֵי וְעָבֵיד שְׁרַקְרַק. וּגְמִירִי דְּאִי יָתֵיב אַאַרְעָא וְשָׁרֵיק — אֲתָא מְשִׁיחָא, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: אֶשְׁרְקָה לָהֶם וַאֲקַבְּצֵם (זכריה י, ח).

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Unresolved. Modern Hebrew uses רחם for Neophron percnopterus (Egyptian vulture) but this is a later identification; the Talmudic שרקרק is not itself securely identified.

Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) — modern Hebrew referent of racham, not the Talmudic sherakrak

Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). Modern Hebrew usage of racham; not a secure identification of the Talmudic sherakrak. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 17 חֲסִידָה chasidah stork (via Rashi's לעז) Anchored (Rashi + Talmud)

Verse

וְהַחֲסִידָה וְהָאֲנָפָה לְמִינָהּ

Leviticus 11:19 · Deuteronomy 14:18

Verify: Lev 11:19 · Deut 14:18

Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

לעז: ציגוני״א cigogne — stork

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Yehuda)

אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה: הַחֲסִידָה — זוֹ דַּיָּה לְבָנָה. לָמָּה נִקְרָא שְׁמָהּ חֲסִידָה? שֶׁעוֹשָׂה חֲסִידוּת עִם חַבְרוֹתֶיהָ.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Ciconia ciconia (white stork). Family-level "stork" is anchored by Rashi's cigogne; species-level white stork is the common Levantine candidate, though species precision still requires caution.

White stork (Ciconia ciconia) — matches Rashi's Old French cigogne

White Stork (Ciconia ciconia). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 18 אֲנָפָה anafah heron (via Rashi's לעז) Anchored (Rashi + Talmud)

Verse

וְהָאֲנָפָה לְמִינָהּ וְהַדּוּכִיפַת וְהָעֲטַלֵּף׃

Leviticus 11:19 · Deuteronomy 14:18

Verify: Lev 11:19 · Deut 14:18

Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

לעז: הירו״ן heron — heron

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Yehuda)

הָאֲנָפָה — זוֹ דַּיָּה רַגְזָנִית. לָמָּה נִקְרָא שְׁמָהּ אֲנָפָה? שֶׁמְּנָאֶפֶת עִם חַבְרוֹתֶיהָ.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Ardea sp.; probably Ardea cinerea (grey heron). Rashi's heron anchors the family; species-level is slightly less secure.

Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) in flight — matches Rashi's Old French heron

Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 19 דּוּכִיפַת duchifat hoopoe Anchored (Rashi + Talmud)

Verse

וְהַדּוּכִיפַת וְהָעֲטַלֵּף

Leviticus 11:19 · Deuteronomy 14:18

Verify: Lev 11:19 · Deut 14:18

Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

לעז: הרופ״א huppe (likely) — hoopoe

Verify: sefaria.org/Rashi on Leviticus 11:19

Talmud · Chullin 63a (Rav Yehuda)

אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה: דּוּכִיפַת — שֶׁהוֹדוֹ כָּפוּת. תַּנְיָא נַמֵי הָכִי: דּוּכִיפַת שֶׁהוֹדוֹ כָּפוּת, וְזֶהוּ שֶׁהֵבִיא שָׁמִיר לְבֵית הַמִּקְדָּשׁ.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a

Modern Candidate

Upupa epops (hoopoe). Rashi's huppe and the Talmudic "glory-bound" (crest) etymology both point to a crested bird; this is the most widely accepted identification on the list.

Hoopoe (Upupa epops) with distinctive erectable crest — matches Rashi's huppe and the Talmudic hodo kaput (bound glory)

Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 20 עֲטַלֵּף atalef bat No lexical anchor

Verse

וְאֶת־הָעֲטַלֵּף׃

Leviticus 11:19 · Deuteronomy 14:18

Verify: Lev 11:19 · Deut 14:18

Modern Candidate

Bat (at the lemma level). No Rashi לעז on עטלף itself — Rashi's bat-word appears on tinshemet (Row 14) and the conflict between the two listings is noted there. No verified Talmudic etymology for עטלף in this dataset.

Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) at Hai-Bar Yotvata reserve, Israel — one example of the bat group

Egyptian Fruit Bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) at Hai-Bar Yotvata, Israel. One example of the bat group, not a secure species identification. Photograph via Wikimedia Commons.

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Row 21 · family לְמִינָהּ on ayah/dayah Lev 11:14 · Deut 14:13 No lexical anchor (family row)

See ayah/dayah headword row (5) for the Chullin 63b anchor. This row is the structural family-expansion.

Row 22 · family לְמִינוֹ on orev Lev 11:15 · Deut 14:14 Talmudic-anchored

Talmud · Chullin 63a (raven sub-kinds)

תָּנוּ רַבָּנַן: עוֹרֵב — זֶה עוֹרֵב. אֶת־כׇּל־עוֹרֵב — לְהָבִיא עוֹרֵב הָעֶמֶקִי. לְמִינוֹ — לְהָבִיא עוֹרֵב הַבָּא בְּרָאשֵׁי יוֹנִים.

Verify: sefaria.org/Chullin.63a